Gymnodinium catenatum L.W.Graham

Classification:
Empire Eukaryota
Kingdom Protozoa
Subkingdom Biciliata
Infrakingdom Alveolata
Phylum Myzozoa
Class Dinophyceae
Order Gymnodiniales
Family Gymnodiniaceae
Genus Gymnodinium

Publication details
Gymnodinium catenatum L.W.Graham 1943: 259-262, figs. 1, 2

Original description: Download PDF

Type species
The type species (lectotype) of the genus Gymnodinium is Gymnodinium fuscum (Ehrenberg) F.Stein.

Status of name
This name is of an entity that is currently accepted taxonomically.

Origin of species name
Adjective (Latin), chained, chain-like (Stearn 1973).

Synonym(s)
No synonyms are currently included in AlgaeBase.

General environment
This is a Marine species.

Usage notes
This species produces paralytic shellfish poisons, mainly sulfamate saxitoxin derivatives, which accumulate in shellfish such as oysters, mussels and scallops, and thus can cause neurological and gastrointestinal problems in human shellfish consumers. Shellfish containing more than 80 micrograms toxin per 100 g meat should be considered unsafe for human consumption (Hallegraeff, 1991). Harmful species

Type information
Type locality: NE Pacific Ocean: Gulf of California, Mexico (Faust & Gulledge 2002: 39). Holotype: (Faust & Gulledge 2002: 39).

Detailed distribution with sources
(as Gymnodinium catenatum L.W.Graham)
Europe: Italy (Hallegraeff 1991), Portugal (Hallegraeff 1991, Amorim, Dale, Godinho & Brotas 2002), Spain (Hallegraeff 1991, Ordás et al. 2004, Figueroa et al 2006).

North America: Mexico (Hallegraeff 1991, Faust & Gulledge 2002, Reyes-Salinas et al 2006).

South America: Argentina (Hallegraeff 1991, Faust & Gulledge 2002).

Asia: Japan (Hallegraeff 1991, Faust & Gulledge 2002, Harlow et al 2007).

Australia and New Zealand: Australia (Faust & Gulledge 2002), New Zealand (Harlow et al 2007), Tasmania (Hallegraeff 1991, Harlow et al 2007).

Source of synonymy
Steidinger, K.A. & Tangen, K. (1996). Dinoflagellates. In: Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. (Tomas, C.R. Eds), pp. 387-584. San Diego: Academic Press.

Key references
Band-Schmidt, C., Bustillos-Guzmán, J., Morquecho, L., Gárate-Lizárraga, I., Alonso-Rodriguez, R., Reyes-Salinas, A., Erler, K. & Luckas, B. (2006). Variations of PSP toxin profiles during different growth phases in Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) strains isolated from three locations in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Journal of Phycology 42(4): 757-768.

Figueroa, R.I., Bravo, I., Garces, E. & Ramilo, I. (2006). Nuclear features and effect of nutrients on Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) sexual stages . Journal of Phycology 42: 67-77.

Flø Jørgesen, M., Murray, S. and Daugbjerg, N. (2004). Amphidinium revisited. I. Redefinition of Amphidinium (Dinophyceae) based on cladistic and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Journal of Phycology 40: 351-365, 6 Figs.

Gomez, F. (2008). Phytoplankton invasions: comments on the validity of categorizing the non-indigenous dinoflagellates and diatoms in European Seas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56: 620-628.

Hallegraeff, G.M., Anderson, D.M. & Cembella, A.D., Eds (2003). Manual on harmful marine microalgae. Paris: UNESCO.

Harlow, L.D., Koutoulis, A. & Hallegraeff, G.M. (2007). S-adenosylmethionine synthetase genes from eleven marine dinoflagellates. Phycologia 46: 46-53.

Jeong, H.J., Kim, H.R., Kim, K.L., Kim, K.Y., Park, K.H., Kim, S.T., Yoo, Y.D., Song, J.Y., Kim, J.S., Seong, K.A., Yih, W.H., Pae, S.J., Lee, C.H., Huh, M.D. & Lee, S.H. (2002). NaOCl produced by electrolysis of natural seawater as a potential method to control marine red-tide dinoflagellates. Phycologia 41: 643-656.

Lindberg, K., Moestrup, Ø & Daugbjerg, N. (2005). Studies on woloszynskioid dinoflagellates I: Woloszynskia coronata re-examined using light and electron microscopy and partial LSU rDNA sequences, with description of Tovellia gen. nov. and Jadwigia gen. nov. (Tovelliaceae fam. nov.). Phycologia 44: 416-440.

CCAP Cultures
CCAP Strain Number 1117/5 Gymnodinium catenatum L.W. Graham
Go to CCAP Site

SAG Cultures
No records have been found on the SAG site.

NCBI Nucleotide Sequences
As of 2 June 2009, nucleotide sequence data are available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Genbank for 102 samples identified as Gymnodinium catenatum.

Created: 07 May 2002 by M.D. Guiry

Verified by: 28 December 2009 by M.D. Guiry

Accesses: This record has been accessed by users 1971 times since it was created.

References
(Please note: only references with the binomials in the title are included. The information is from the Literature database.)

Amorim, A., Dale, B., Godinho, R. & Brotas, V. (2002). Gymnodinium catenatum-like cysts (Dinophyceae) in recent sediments from the coast of Portugal. Phycologia 40: 572-582.
Anderson, D.M., Jacobson, D.M., Bravo, I. & Wrenn, J.H. (1988). The unique, microreticulate cyst of the naked dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Journal of Phycology 24: 255-262.
Band-Schmidt, C., Bustillos-Guzmán, J., Morquecho, L., Gárate-Lizárraga, I., Alonso-Rodriguez, R., Reyes-Salinas, A., Erler, K. & Luckas, B. (2006). Variations of PSP toxin profiles during different growth phases in Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) strains isolated from three locations in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Journal of Phycology 42(4): 757-768.
Blackburn, S.I., Bolch, C.J.S., Haskard, K.A. & Hallegraeff, G.M. (2001). Reproductive compatibility amoung four global populations of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae). Phycologia 40: 78-87.
Blackburn, S.I., Hallegraeff, G.M. & Bolch, C.J. (1989). Vegetative reproduction and sexual life cycle of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum from Tasmania, Australia. Journal of Phycology 25: 577-590, 32 figs, 2 tables.
Bolch, C.J.S., Blackburn, S.I., Hallegraeff, G.M. & Vaillancourt, R.E. (1999). Genetic variation among strains of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae). Journal of Phycology 35: 356-367, 3 figs, 4 tables.
Bolch, C.J.S., Negri, A.P. & Hallegraeff, G.M. (1999). Gymnodinium microreticulatum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae): a naked, microreticulate cyst-producing dinoflagellate, distinct from Gymnodinium catenatum and Gymnodinium nolleri. Phycologia 38: 301-313, 22 figs, 2 tables.
Carrada, G.C., Casotti, R., Modigh, M. & Saggiomo, V. (1991). Presence of Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) in a coastal Mediterranean lagoon. J Plankton Res 13(1): 229-238.
Costas, E., Zardoya, R., Bautista, J., Garrido, A., Rojo, C. & López-Rodas, V. (1995). Morphospecies vs. genospecies in toxic marine dinoflagellates: an analysis of Gymnodinium catenatum/Gyrodinium impudicum and Alexandrium minutum/A. lusitanicum using antibodies, lectins, and gene sequences. Journal of Phycology 31: 801-807, 1 fig, 5 tables.
Ellegaard, M. & Oshima, Y. (1998). Gymnodinium nolleri Ellegaard et Moestrup sp. ined. (Dinophyceae) from Danish waters, a new species producing Gymnodinium catenatum-like cysts: molecular and toxicological comparisons with Australian and Spanish strains of Gymnodinium catenatum. Phycologia 37: 369-378, 14 figs, 4 tables.
Ellegaard, M., Christensen, N.F. & Moestrup, Ø. (1993). Temperature and salinity effects on growth of a non-chain-forming strain of Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) established from a cyst from recent sediments in The Sound (Øresund), Denmark. Journal of Phycology 29: 418 -426, 16 figs, 2 tables.
Fermín, E.G., Figueiras, F.G., Arbones, B. & Villarino, M.L. (1996). Short-time scale development of a Gymnodinium catenatum population in the Ria de Vigo (NW Spain). Journal of Phycology 32: 212-221, 7 figs, 1 table.
Figueroa, R.I., Bravo, I., Garces, E. & Ramilo, I. (2006). Nuclear features and effect of nutrients on Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) sexual stages . Journal of Phycology 42: 67-77.
Hallegraeff, G.M., Nichols, P.D., Volkman, J.K., Blackburn, S.I. & Everitt, D.A. (1991). Pigments, fatty acids and sterols of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Journal of Phycology 27: 591-599, 3 figs, 4 tables.
Holmes, M.J., Bolch, C.J.S., Green, D.H., Cembella, A.D. & Teo, S.L.M. (2002). Singapore isolates of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) produce a unique profile of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. Journal of Phycology 38: 96-106.
Matsuoka, K. & Fukuyo, Y. (1994). Geographical distribution of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum Graham in Japanese coastal waters. Botanica Marina 37: 495-503, 3 figs, 3 tables.
Morey-Gaines, G. (1982). Gymnodinium catenatum Graham (Dinophyceae): morphology and affinities with armoured forms. Phycologia 21: 154-163, 15 figs, 1 table.
Ordás, M.C., Fraga, S., Franco, J.M., Ordás, A. & Figueras, A. (2004). Toxin and molecular analysis of Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) strains from Galicia (NW Spain) and Andalucía (S Spain). J. Plankton Res. 26: 341-350.
Park, T.-G., Kim, C.-H. & Oshima, Y. (2004). Paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of different geographic populations of Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) in Korean coastal waters. Phycological Research 52(3): 300-306.
Rees, A.J.J. & Hallegraeff, G.M. (1991). Ultrastructure of the toxic, chain-forming dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae). Phycologia 30: 90-105.
Sako, Y., Yoshida, T., Uchida, A., Arakawa, O., Noguchi, T. & Ishida, Y. (2001). Purification and characterization of sulfotransferase specific to N-21 of saxitoxin and gonyautoxin 2+3 from the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae). Journal of Phycology 37: 1044-1051.